Lyme Disease in Dogs
Oliver Organista, LA Lyme disease is triggered by the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi, which belongs to the spirochete class, characterized by its worm-like, spiral shape within the genus Borrelia. This bacterium is spread to both dogs and humans through the bite of an infected black legged tick, also known as the deer tick (Ixodes scapularis). The lifecycle of the I. scapularis tick occurs at various times throughout the year, influenced by geographic location, which in turn affects the timing of Lyme disease transmission. This disease is predominantly found in certain regions, including southern New England, the eastern Mid-Atlantic, the upper Midwest (notably Wisconsin and Minnesota), and parts of the West Coast such as northern California in the United States. Lyme disease is also encountered in Europe and Asia. Typical habitats for these ticks include forests, grassy areas, wooded and marshy zones near bodies of water, and secluded or rural parts of homes and buildings. In Canada, Lyme disease can be spread by two types of black legged ticks: Ixodes scapularis and Ixodes pacificus. Dogs are most often bitten by adult I. scapularis ticks, which are particularly active during the cooler months of early spring and late fall. It is rare for a female tick to pass B. burgdorferi directly to her offspring. Ticks generally acquire the infection during their juvenile stages after feeding on an infected wildlife host, typically rodents. Since ticks feed only once at each life stage, the bacterium’s next chance to spread occurs with the tick’s subsequent blood meal in its next developmental stage. Clinical symptoms Symptoms of Lyme disease typically emerge several months after infection, often between two to five months post-exposure. The clinical presentation of Lyme disease can closely resemble that of anaplasmosis, as both diseases share similar symptoms and occur in similar regions of the country. The most common indicators of Lyme disease in dogs include: Lameness: One of the hallmark signs of Lyme disease is the inability to properly use one or more limbs, often due to pain. Swollen lymph nodes: The swelling of lymph nodes, located in areas such as the neck, chest, armpits, groin, and behind the knees, often signals an immune response to the infection. Joint swelling: Dogs may show signs of swollen joints, which can lead to stiff movements or reluctance to be touched, indicative of discomfort. Fatigue: Affected dogs may display flu-like symptoms, including a noticeable decrease in energy and increased lethargy. Loss of appetite: A reduction in eating habits, particularly if it results in weight loss, can be a symptom of Lyme disease. Fever: A fever is another possible symptom that can accompany the other signs mentioned. In some uncommon instances, untreated Lyme disease can lead to serious complications involving the kidneys, nervous system, and heart. Kidney involvement is the second most frequent severe manifestation of Lyme disease in dogs and often proves to be fatal. Cases involving the nervous system may present with facial paralysis and seizures. Heart-related complications, while rarer, have also been documented. Diagnosis To diagnose Lyme disease in dogs, serologic assays are the most widely used methods. While some laboratories continue to utilize traditional approaches like the whole-cell enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) , the immunofluorescence assay (IFA), and rapid tests. These tests identify the presence of antibodies against specific proteins of B. burgdorferi, offering a simple yes/no result regarding the dog’s serology status. Treatment Treatment is advised for dogs that test positive for Lyme disease and show clinical symptoms, as well as for asymptomatic dogs that have signs of protein-losing nephropathy. The antibiotics doxycycline and minocycline are the primary medications used, administered at a dose of 10mg/kg orally every 12 to 24 hours for 30 days. Amoxicillin and erythromycin are alternative antibiotic options. Additionally, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), such as carprofen or deracoxib, may be prescribed to manage symptoms. Prevention To safeguard against Lyme disease, the most effective approach is the consistent use of tick-prevention products throughout the year. There are numerous commercial options available for controlling ticks on both dogs and cats, such as systemic treatments (like isoxazolines), topical applications (such as permethrin and fipronil), and tick-preventive collars. Vaccination also serves as an effective means of protection. Additionally, limiting exposure to tick-infested areas and practicing caution in environments known to harbor ticks are important preventive strategies. References 2. Lyme Disease in Dogs: Signs and Prevention, Kathryn E. Reif, MSPH, PhD.,April 2020, https://todaysveterinarypractice.com/parasitology/lyme-disease/ 3. Lyme Disease, IPAC (https://ipac-canada.org/lyme-disease.php) 4. Littman MP, Gerber B, Goldstein RE, et al. ACVIM consensus update on Lyme borreliosis in dogs and cats. J Vet Intern Med 2018;32(3):887-903. 5. Mullegger RR. Dermatological manifestations of Lyme borreliosis. Eur J Dermatol. 2004 Sep-Oct;14(5):296-309. PMID: 15358567
Pancreatitis in Dogs
Dr. Sushant Sadotra Canine Pancreatitis is one of the most common endocrine diseases occurring in dogs. However, it is more prevalent in dog breeds such as Miniature Schnauzers, Yorkshire Terriers, Cocker Spaniels, Dachshunds, Poodles, and sled dogs. Pancreatitis, a severe inflammatory condition of the pancreas, can be short-term or long-term, based on the level of pancreatic tissue damage. It can be of acute or chronic type. It can be related to various clinical or subclinical signs and potentially life-threatening. Causes: Pathogenesis In the initial stages of Pancreatitis, the pancreatic juice is secreted in lesser amounts. Inside the pancreas, a series of steps lead to the activation of pancreatic enzymes. Co-localization of zymogen granules and lysosomes activates trypsinogen to trypsin, which further activates other zymogens. Premature activation of these digestive enzymes causes local damage such as edema, bleeding, inflammation, and necrosis of the pancreas. The inflammation process invites WBCs to the site and increases cytokine production. Altogether, this will cause further damage to pancreases and other distant complications such as generalized inflammation, disseminated intravascular coagulation, disseminated lipodystrophy, hypotension, renal failure, pulmonary failure, myocarditis, etc. Clinical Findings: Some of the most common symptoms in dogs are: The milder form of Pancreatitis can be related to subclinical or may have minor or nonspecific signs of anorexia, lethargy, or diarrhea. Diagnosis: Among all the methods discussed, histopathology is the gold standard for the diagnosis of canine Pancreatitis. However, a combination of mentioned techniques can be implemented in clinical practice for the most reliable and accurate diagnosis. Treatment: Careful monitoring and supportive veterinary care should be given in acute cases to prevent systemic complications. If a dog with chronic pancreatitis has no sign of improvement, additional trial therapy with an immunosuppressive agent such as prednisone, prednisolone, or cyclosporine may be prescribed for the treatment. Treatment for chronic pancreatitis is challenging because of systemic complications such as hypothermia, acidosis, hypocalcemia, and single- or multiple-organ failure. Reference: Watson, P. (2015), Pancreatitis in dogs and cats: definitions and pathophysiology. J Small Anim Pract, 56: 3-12. Whitley EM. Comparative Pancreatic Pathology. Pathobiology of Human Disease. 2014:1101–23. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-386456-7.03415-8. Epub 2014 Aug 21. PMCID: PMC7149520. Xenoulis, P.G. (2015), diagnosis of pancreatitis in dogs and cats. J Small Anim Pract, 56: 13-26.
Kidney Diseases in Cats
Lloyd Alexandria Chavez, R.M.T Cats possess a pair of kidneys located on either side of their abdomen, playing a crucial role in eliminating waste from their system. These organs are also key in regulating the balance of fluids, minerals, and electrolytes in the body, conserving water and protein, and supporting blood pressure and the production of red blood cells through the production of the hormone erythropoietin. Kidney disease in cats can manifest in several forms and can stem from various causes, typically classified into either acute or chronic categories. Acute kidney injury occurs when the kidneys are suddenly damaged, potentially impairing their function. This condition can affect both pets and humans and may result in diminished kidney performance. Fortunately, acute kidney injury can often be reversible, with approximately half of those affected—be they pets or humans—able to recover. The kidneys have a remarkable capacity for self-repair, provided the initial cause of injury is addressed and any exacerbating factors are eliminated. Recovery prospects depend on several factors, including the cause of the injury, its severity, whether other bodily systems are involved, the availability of treatments such as hemodialysis, and adherence to medical guidance.Chronic kidney disease (CKD), on the other hand, is frequently diagnosed in older cats and is characterized by a progressive decline in kidney function. Symptoms of CKD in cats include increased thirst and urination, reduced appetite, weight loss, vomiting, and a dull coat. CKD is an incurable condition that worsens over time, resulting from gradual kidney damage over months or years. Its progression and symptom onset are more gradual compared to acute kidney disease, which can emerge rapidly following significant kidney damage from causes such as infections or toxic substances like antifreeze or lilies. Cats with acute kidney disease typically exhibit severe symptoms swiftly. SYMPTOMS In the initial stages of chronic kidney disease (CKD), there may be no noticeable symptoms as the kidneys are still able to function adequately. However, as the disease progresses and the kidneys become increasingly impaired, symptoms will begin to manifest. These symptoms can develop gradually and may be subtle, making them difficult to detect. They include: DIAGNOSIS Chronic kidney disease is diagnosed through a series of blood and urine tests that measure levels of specific substances indicative of kidney function. These tests not only confirm the presence of kidney issues but also aid veterinarians in staging the disease, which helps in understanding its severity. The key laboratory tests include: Together, these tests provide a comprehensive assessment of kidney health, allowing for accurate diagnosis and staging of chronic kidney disease in cats. TREATMENT While it’s not possible to cure chronic kidney disease (CKD) or undo the damage that has occurred, steps can be taken to slow its progression and alleviate the symptoms. In cases where a cat is diagnosed with CKD and is showing signs of illness, the initial course of treatment may include: This treatment regimen aims to manage the symptoms and complications associated with CKD, improving the quality of life for cats living with this condition. Sources: https://www.pdsa.org.uk/pet-help-and-advice/pet-health-hub/conditions/chronic-kidney-disease-in-cats#:~:text=FAQs-,Overview,vomiting%2C%20and%20poor%20coat%20condition. https://www.petmd.com/cat/conditions/urinary/kidney-disease-cats https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7379052/
C-Reactive Protein
Sushant Sadotra The acute phase response (APR) is the early typical systemic response prompted by homeostasis disturbances such as injuries, infection, neoplasia, and other pathologies. Acute phase proteins get released from the liver into the blood after such stimulations. Therefore, elevated levels of such proteins can be used to indicate systemic inflammation. C-reactive protein, also called CRP, is an acute-phase protein synthesized in the liver and acts as a marker of the innate immune system response during inflammatory reactions. It is a 120 kDa composed of five identical subunits to form a pentamer structure. In Dogs, proinflammatory cytokines cause a rapid rise in the blood CRP concentration that also returns to normal without the provocative cause. Therefore it serves as an indicator and a crucial biomarker of inflammation. Besides projecting the degree of inflammation, CRP is helpful as a marker to examine the severity of a specific disease, such as gastrointestinal issues or diseases of other organs. Some of the biological functions of CRP are mentioned below: Factors inducing acute phase response, including CRP: CRP has been widely used in Europe and Japan to examine dogs with gastrointestinal and nongastrointestinal disorders. Some of the pathophysiologic conditions where CRP is frequently used as a biomarker are: CRP is a marker for chronic gastrointestinal signs, mucosal inflammation, systemic or gastrointestinal diseases, etc. Measurement of CRP and pancreatic lipase provide more sensitive and specific results. CRP can provide predictive information in dogs with CPV-2 infection. Dogs with hepatic disease have shown evaluated serum CRP levels. CRP is also the indicator of an acute abdomen in dogs with symptoms of abdominal pain, gastric dilatation or volvulus, small bowel obstruction, and peritonitis. CRP concentrations are higher in dogs with PLE, a disorder where excessive protein loss occurs through gastrointestinal mucosa. Dogs with Immune-mediated hemolytic anemia have high CRP levels. Tumor-associated inflammation or cytokine production leads to higher CRP concentrations in dogs with cancer of hematopoietic origins, such as lymphoma and leukemia. Measurement of canine CRP: POCTs track the inflammatory response in dogs as a rapid ancillary test or emergency. Evaluating CRP levels can be tested using available POCTs like the Point Strip canine CRP assay, LifeAssays canine CRP test, EURO-Lyser solo CRP test, and TECOdogCRP-quant. This commercially available test can estimate the scattering of light from a laser interacting with the CRP and anti-canine CRP antibody complex. This test is developed as Laser CRP-2 by Arrows Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan. Many laboratories can estimate CRP at a large scale using commercially available multiple canine-specific CRP ELISA Tests such as Phase Range canine CRP ELISA37 (developed by Tridelta Development Ltd, Kildare, UK) and test invented by Waritani et al. Measurement of CRP in dogs can also be done through many automated immunoturbidimetric assays like the Turbovet canine CRP assay by Acuvet Biotech, Zaragoza, Spain; the Gentian canine CRP assay by Gentian AS, Moss, Norway; and TR-IMFA developed by Parra et al. Reference:
Kidney Disease in Cats
Chavezlloyd Alexandria Baldago A cat has two kidneys, one on each side of the abdomen, and they play a vital role in filtering waste from the body. Additionally, the kidneys serve to regulate the body’s balance of fluids, minerals, and electrolytes. They conserve water and protein and play an important role in maintaining blood pressure and red blood cell production by making a hormone called erythropoietin. There are different types of kidney disease in cats and various underlying causes. These often develop into one of two categories: acute or chronic. Acute kidney injury is when the kidneys suddenly get damaged, which can sometimes make them work less effectively. It can happen in both small animals (like pets) and humans, and it might or might not lead to reduced kidney function. The good news is that acute kidney injury can often be turned around, with about half of the affected individuals, whether they are pets or people. The kidneys have a special ability to heal themselves if the problem that caused the injury is gone, and things that were making the injury worse stop. The chances of getting better depend on a few things, like what caused the kidney injury (if it can be fixed or not), how bad it is, if other parts of the body are affected, whether treatments like hemodialysis are available, and how well the person or pet follows the doctor’s advice. Chronic kidney disease, or CKD, is a common issue in older cats. It makes their kidneys work less effectively. Some signs of CKD in cats are drinking more water, peeing more, eating less, losing weight, throwing up, and having a rough coat. Unfortunately, there’s no cure for CKD, and it gets worse as time goes on. CKD results from damage to the kidneys that develops slowly over months and years and tends to cause symptoms which slowly progress. This is different from acute kidney disease, which develops if something suddenly causes a large amount of damage to the kidneys such as an infection or a poison such as antifreeze or lilies. Cats with acute kidney disease tend to develop serious symptoms very quickly SYMPTOMS Chronic kidney disease might not cause any symptoms in the early stages because the kidneys are still able to manage. Once the kidneys have been significantly damaged and are unable to cope, the symptoms will start to appear. Some can appear very slowly and can be hard to spot. Symptoms include: DIAGNOSIS Chronic kidney disease can be diagnosed using blood and urine tests. These tests detect raised levels of certain substances that may indicate the kidneys aren’t working properly. If necessary, these test results will also help the vet grade the cat’s kidney disease, which indicates how serious it is. Laboratory tests include: TREATMENT It’s not possible to cure chronic kidney disease or reverse the damage that has already been done, but it is possible to slow it down and reduce the symptoms. If your cat is poorly when they are diagnosed with chronic kidney disease, initial treatment might include: Sources: https://www.pdsa.org.uk/pet-help-and-advice/pet-health-hub/conditions/chronic-kidney-disease-in-cats#:~:text=FAQs-,Overview,vomiting%2C%20and%20poor%20coat%20condition.
Rabbit Hemorrhagic Disease
Long Pham Introduction Rabbit hemorrhagic disease (RHD) is a highly contagious and lethal viral disease caused by a virus from the Caliciviridae family. This disease seems to only affect European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus),both domesticated and wild rabbits. However, a newer strain of the virus, RHDV2, can affect rabbits with previous immunity to RHD and also hares (Lepus spp.). The first outbreak of rabbit hemorrhagic disease was noted in China from a shipment of Angora rabbits from Germany in 1984 (1). The devastating nature of this disease can be seen as about 140 million domestic rabbits were killed in China during this outbreak in just less than a year (1). The next country to have an RHD outbreak was Korea due to importing rabbit fur from China (2). In 1986, the disease arrived in Italy and then spread to the rest of Europe (3). In 1988, the first outbreak in the Americas was reported in Mexico from imported rabbit products coming from China (4). However, Mexico was able to control RHD and had its last outbreak in 1992 (4). While RHD has been seen as a devastating disease that causes ecological and economical impacts, for New Zealand and Australia, RHD was considered as a method of pest control for the wild rabbits (5). Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus was released in Wardang Island in South Australia, but in 1995, RHDV escaped and reach Australia (6). At the moment, RHD generally occurs in areas where European rabbits are found in the wild, with deadly outbreaks that can occur on almost all continents. Clinical signs Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus has an incubation period of around 1-3 days. The virus can affect many internal organs (mainly targets the spleen, liver, and lungs), causing internal bleeding in infected rabbits. This disease can be present in 3 different forms: peracute, acute, subacute. Peracute form: Infected rabbit dies suddenly without showing any signs. Can be seen functioning normally before suddenly dying. Acute form: Rabbits can have a lack of motivation to move, ataxia, convulsions, subconjunctival hemorrhage, respiratory issues, and nosebleeds (Figure 1). For these infected rabbits, death can occur within 72 hours. Subacute form: These rabbits can have the same symptoms, but in a milder form. In this form, liver damage can occur, causing jaundice, with death that can occur weeks later. In general, most rabbits survive and develop some immunity to the virus. In general, rabbits that have clinical symptoms will die from the disease, while rabbits with the subacute form may survive. Rabbits that recover from the subacute form may have extensive liver damage, resulting in chronic liver diseases. Diagnosis Rabbit hemorrhagic disease can be confirmed through a post-mortem examination for the presence of an enlarged and pale liver. Molecular testing of live samples with PCR or ELISA can also confirm diagnosis. However, some tests may not be able to distinguish between RHDV and RHDV2. Figure 1: Rabbits with RHD often die suddenly and have bleeding from the nose due to internal bleeding. (Photo Credit: Dr. J.P. Teifke from theFederal Research Institute for Animal Health in Riems, Germany) Treatment and Disease Control Rabbit hemorrhagic disease have several possible routes of transmission: nasal, oral, conjunctival, and through other places because hematophagous insects have been seen to be quite effective in spreading diseases (7). Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus may be shed through the rabbit’s excretions and secretions, making direct contact with or contact with contaminated environment the likely method of transmission. The remains of infected rabbits may also be a source of infections and spreading of the virus because it is very resilient and has been seen to still be viable even after three months (8). Flies and birds can also be effective carriers of the virus because they can travel great distances with the resilient virus and contaminate the rabbit’s food source and habitat. Carnivores and scavengers are other possible carriers because the virus from consumed infected rabbits can transported and spread through the feces. Currently, there is no cure for rabbit hemorrhagic disease. Supportive care may help, but it’s best to have preventive care with vaccinations. Hyperimmune antiserum can be effective if the rabbit has not showed clinical signs, but will be ineffective after the signs appear. For domestic rabbits, vaccinations is an effective preventative measure. However, for wild rabbits, the sheer number of rabbits would make vaccinations economically unfeasible at the moment. To help prevent outbreaks, countries can place bans or restrictions on importing rabbit products, such as meats or furs, from other countries where rabbit hemorrhagic disease is endemic. Other preventative methods are culling, monitoring, following strict quarantining rules, and thoroughly disinfecting contaminated areas before bringing rabbits there again. Disinfection of the rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus can be done with a 4-10% solution of sodium hydroxide or 1-2% formalin solution. A 1:10 dilution of household bleach can also be used for disinfecting infected surfaces. However, since the virus is nonenveloped, an alcohol-based disinfection is not effective. Reference 1. Liu, S. J., H. P. Xue, B. Q. Pu, and N. H. Qian. 1984. A new viral disease in rabbits. Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine (Xumu yu Shouyi) 16:253–255. 2. Park, N.Y., C. Y. Chong, J. H. Kim, S. M. Cho, Y. H. Cha, B. T. Jung, D. S. Kim, J. B. Yoon, J. Y. Park, and S. H. Wee, 1987. An outbreak of viral haemorrhagic pneumonia (tentative name) of rabbits in Korea. Journal of the Korean Veterinary Medical Association: 23: 603-610. 3. Cancellotti, F. M., and M. Renzi. 1991. Epidemiology and current situation of viral haemorrhagic disease of rabbits and the European brown hare syndrome. Revue Scientifique et Technique de l’OIE 10:409–422. 4. Gregg, D. A., C. House, and M. Berninger. 1991. Viral haemorrhagic disease of rabbits in Mexico: Epidemiology and viral characterization. Revue Scientifique et Technique de l’OIE 10:435–451. 5. Cooke, B. D. 2002. Rabbit haemorrhagic disease: Field Epidemiology and the management of wild rabbit populations. Revue Scientifique et Technique de l’OIE 21:347–358. 6. Cooke, B. D., and F. Fenner. 2002. Rabbit
Inflammatory Bowel Disease in Cats
Sushant Sadotra Feline inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic condition that affects a cat’s gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The walls of the GI tract become thickened due to the infiltration of inflammatory cells, disrupting the cat’s ability to digest and absorb food properly. Although IBD can affect cats of any age, middle-aged and older cats are more prone to it. The exact cause of IBD remains unknown, but current evidence suggests that it may result from an abnormal interaction between the immune system, diet, bacterial populations in the intestines, and other environmental factors. Genetic abnormalities in the immune system are also believed to play a role in feline IBD, based on similarities to IBD in humans and dogs. Depending on the region of the GI tract and the type of inflammatory cells involved, IBD can manifest in different forms. If the stomach is inflamed, it is called gastritis; if the small intestine is inflamed, it is called enteritis, and if the colon is inflamed, it is called colitis. Lymphocytic plasmacytic enteritis is the most common form of IBD, where inflammatory lymphocytes and plasma cells attack the small intestine. Eosinophils, another type of inflammatory white blood cell, may also be involved in feline IBD, but are usually part of a mixed population of inflammatory cells. Neutrophilic IBD, which involves neutrophils, and granulomatous IBD, which involves macrophages, are two less common forms of IBD. In some cases, IBD can cause inflammation of other abdominal organs, such as the liver and pancreas. It is important to identify the type of IBD affecting a cat through appropriate diagnostic procedures to provide the best possible treatment and management. Clinical symptoms: Feline IBD is often characterized by a set of common clinical signs that include weight loss, vomiting, decreased appetite, diarrhea, lethargy, and bloody stools. The severity and frequency of these signs can vary depending on which parts of the gastrointestinal tract are inflamed. For instance, if the inflammation is situated in the stomach or higher regions of the small intestine, the cat may experience chronic vomiting. Conversely, inflammation in the colon is more likely to cause diarrhea, with or without blood in the stool. Diagnosis When it comes to making a diagnosis of feline IBD, it is important to conduct a thorough workup since many of the symptoms of IBD can overlap with other diseases. To determine the root cause of the symptoms, your veterinarian will most likely recommend conducting baseline blood work, fecal examinations, X-rays, or an abdominal ultrasound to check for metabolic disease, feline leukemia, parasitic or bacterial infections, hyperthyroidism, and certain types of cancer. Intestinal lymphoma, a form of cancer, can be particularly challenging to distinguish from IBD in cats. Additionally, a veterinarian may also measure the levels of B vitamins B12 and folate in the bloodstream, as IBD can hinder the absorption of these vitamins from the GI tract. Finally, a hypoallergenic food trial may be conducted to rule out food allergy as a possible cause. To further diagnose feline IBD, a biopsy is required to evaluate the tissue under a microscope. Increased numbers of inflammatory cells in the intestinal wall indicate the presence of IBD. Endoscopy and surgery are two methods of performing gastrointestinal biopsies, both of which require general anesthesia. However, surgery may be recommended for patients with suspected liver or pancreatic disease to biopsy these organs as well. Treatment If you suspect that your furry friend has intestinal parasites, it is important to consult with a veterinarian who will recommend appropriate treatment. The initial steps usually involve a combination of dietary changes and medications. Since there is no one-size-fits-all solution, your vet may need to experiment with different diet and medication combinations to determine the best therapy for your pet. Dietary Management If your cat is suffering from Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD), it is likely that dietary allergens are playing a role. Your veterinarian may suggest undergoing a food trial using hypoallergenic diets to help alleviate the symptoms. These diets include protein or carbohydrate sources that your cat has never consumed before. Some common initial choices are diets based on rabbit, duck, or venison. In case the symptoms do not improve with a hypoallergenic diet, your cat may benefit from diets that are high in fiber, low in fat, and easily digestible. It is important to note that it may take several weeks or even longer for your cat to show signs of improvement after a diet change. During any food trial, it is crucial to eliminate all other food sources, including table scraps, flavored medications, and treats. Medical Treatment Reference
Respiratory Tract Disease Complex in Cats
Sushant Sadotra, PhD/Diagnostic specialist Feline respiratory disease (FRD) syndrome or feline upper respiratory tract disease complex is a common infection in cats caused mainly by Feline Herpesvirus (FHV-1), Feline Calicivirus (FCV), Chlamydophila felis, Mycoplasma spp., and Bordetella bronchiseptica. About 90% of all upper respiratory infections are caused by FHV-1 and FCV. Common Symptoms: · Sneezing · Nasal congestion · Conjunctivitis (inflammation of the membranes lining the eyelids) · Discharge from the nose or eyes (clear, purulent, or cloudy containing pus). · Difficulty breathing · Ulcers in the mouth Less specific symptom · Less appetite · Lethargy · Fever · Enlarged lymph nodes · Blepharospasm (squinting) Sources of infection: · Susceptible cats can get an infection by contagious particles in saliva or secretions from the nose or eyes shredded by an infected cat. · Most cases are associated with direct contact · Natural transmissions can also occur via aerosol droplets. Stress may also cause a secondary course of illness. Real-Time PCR for Diagnosis: A definitive diagnosis is based on clinical signs and laboratory testing for the isolation and identification of the infection. The Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test is one of the sensitive tests and most reliable for detecting the presence of infectious agents. PCR detects the genomic material of the pathogen and determines its presence in the host. It is often more sensitive and specific than other available tests. However, false negative results are still expected. In the case of patients with latent herpes infections where the FHV-1 is found in the trigeminal ganglion can give negative PCR results. In the case of Chlamydophila, 2-3 days of antibiotic treatment for patients can also have negative PCR results. Samples of ocular, nasal, or caudal pharyngeal secretions for PCR assay are best for the diagnosis and identification of causative agents. Sample collection tips: · Ocular: Moisten with tears/exudate well or firmly swab both of the conjunctival sacs with a sterile swab. · Clinical lesions: Prefer to swab from the nasal and pharyngeal areas. After sample collection, place the swab into the preservation buffer and mix thoroughly. If not for immediately use, please keep the mixture at 4°C (no more than 3 days) until nucleic acid extraction.
Feline Herpesvirus Infection- Diagnosis
Trinh Mai Nguyen Tang Feline herpesvirus-1 (FHV-1) is a feline respiratory infection virus also known as feline viral rhinotracheitis (FVR) [1]. The Herpes virus was first isolated by scientists Crandell and Maurer in 1958 in cats with respiratory infections [2]. This virus has a prominent genome with large double stranded DNA, belonging to the family Herpesviridae [3]. This virus is characterized by cat-to-cat transmission with an exposure rate of up to 97% [4]. Herpes virus can be inactivated at 37oC around 3 hours or at 56oC in 5 mins. Meanwhile, the virus can remains infective in the enviroment approximately 5 months and a month at 25oC [5]. Once a cat is infected with the herpes virus, it is incredibly difficult to completely treat it since the virus can enter a dormant state and continue to survive in the cat for the remainder of its life [6]. Cats are not infectious during this latent period, but if they are sick or going through a stressful period, the virus may be reactivate. If this occurs, the cat will once more get the infection and may represent symptoms [7]. Herpes viruses can be latent in the ganglion, attach to sensory nerves and reach nerve cells, persist in the nucleus of infected nerve cells and do not replicate, leading to the process of detecting this virus becomes difficult [7-8]. As reported by Ngoc.N.T and her colleagues, herpes virus can infect cats of any age, however, kittens are more susceptible [9]. Specifically, the prevalence of virus infection in cats younger than 6 months old, 6-12 months old and over 12 months old were 52.17%, 33.33% and 19.05%, respectively [9]. Although previous reports have demonstrate that gender has no effect on the incidence of herpes virus infection [7-8], but Henzel et al. (2002) found that isolates from female cats are substantially taller than isolates from male cats [10]. Clinical Symptoms Herpes virus enters the cat’s body by contact with infected tears, nose, saliva, or items, and then multiplies rapidly in the epithelium of the nose, nasopharynx, and conjunctival mucosa leading to primary infection [11]. In cats infected with FHV-1, signs of sadness, moodiness, lethargy, sneezing, fever, and discharge from the eyes and nose have been noted (figure 1-A), a process that is frequently extended 2-4 days or longer, depending on the immunological system of the cat [11]. Secondary infection occurred after the fourth day of incubation, with symptoms of infection in the throat, bronchi, and bronchioles, and the nasal and conjunctival epithelium necrosing [12]. Conjunctivitis is a common herpes virus symptom, indicated by congestive and exudative symptoms that develop over many days to purulent discharge (figure 1-B) [13]. Gaskell and Dawson (1988) found lung infection or bronchitis in cats, with kittens dying from pneumonia at a greater incidence than adult cats [11,14]. Some other atypical symptoms such as mouth and skin ulcers, dermatitis or neurological signs are rarely seen [7]. Furthermore, the mean white blood cell (WBC) count of cats infected with FHV-1 (17.77 ± 0.70 x103/μl) was slightly increased compared with that of normal cats (4.6-12.8 x 103/μl) [9], in which neutrophils, eosinophils and monocytes all showed signs of slight increase compared. Secondary infections of the eyes, upper respiratory tract, and necrotic ulcers of the mouth can all cause high white blood cell counts [11]. Table 1 displays the white blood cell count. Table 1. Hematological results of cats was infected with FHV-1 [9]. Targets Unit Reference ± SE Red blood cells ´ 106/μl 7-10,7 10,20 ± 0,64 Hemoglobin content g/dl 11,3-15,5 13,47 ± 0,54 RBC mass % 33-45 38,78 ± 1,41 Average volume of red blood cells fl 41-49 45,16 ± 0,75 Average amount of hemoglobin in red blood cells pg 14-17 15,57 ± 0,24 Platelet count ´ 103/μl 180-680 362,50 ± 30,82 WBC count ´ 103/μl 4,6-12,8 17,77 ± 0,70 Lymphocytes ´ 103/μl 1,05-6,00 4,50 ± 0,36 Mono leukocytes ´ 103/μl 0,05-0,68 0,96 ± 0,13 Neutrophils polymorphonuclear leukocytes ´ 103/μl 2,32-10,01 11,47 ± 0,45 Eosinophils ´ 103/μl 0,1-0,6 0,78 ± 0,08 Basophils ´ 103/μl 0-0,14 0,07 ± 0,01 Laboratory Diagnosis In the laboratory, there are many different methods used to determine FHV. Common approaches include PCR, virus isolation in cell culture, and indirect fluorescent antibody staining of tissue samples for viral antibody detection [8,16]. PCR FHV is one of the most common causes of upper respiratory tract illness in cats. Infected cats would show upper respiratory signs. Co-infection of FHV with other pathogens makes the clinical signs more severe, particularly feline calicivirus, Chlamydophila felis, Bordetella pneumoniaseptica, Mycoplasma species, Staphylococcus spp., or Escherichia coli [6]. When a cat is suspected of having a viral infection, a swab can be used to collect nasal, ocular, oropharyngeal secretions, corneal debris, aqueous humor, corneal samples, blood, or biopsies. By amplifying viral DNA, tPCR can detect genetic material of FHV in specimen. However, if the cat is not in the infectious phase, no virus particles will be shed, rendering the PCR test ineffective [19-20]. ELISA method – detecting IgG antibodies The enzyme-linked immunosorbent test (ELISA) is used to determine IgG antibodies against FHV or FHV-1 utilizing serum, aqueous humor, and cerebrospinal fluid samples [15]. This approach, however, cannot discriminate between diseased and vaccinated cats. Due to the extended latent period of FHV, the cat’s body will generate antibodies to combat it [8]. These neutralizing antibodies manifest 20-30 days after the first infection. As a result, the presence of antibodies in the serum signals a prior infection but does not always correspond with clinical signs [8]. Immunofluorescent antibody assay Another approach for detecting FHV is immunofluorescence antibody (IFA) testing on corneal or conjunctival smears or biopsiengs. Through an antigen-antibody response, this assay may identify viral proteins produced in cells. However, this approach is thought to be less sensitive than viral isolation or PCR [16]. Virus isolation This is a traditional method that can detect viruses through isolation of conjunctival debris, nose, oropharynx, or postmortem lung samples from infected cats [8]. This traditional method can detect
Canine Lyme Disease
Oliver Organista, LA Lyme disease is a disease caused by the bacterium Borellia burdorgferi; a worm like, spiral-shape bacterium of spirochete class in the genus Borellia. The bacterium B. burgdorferi is transmitted through a bite of infected blacklegged tick or deer tick (Ixodes scapularis) to dogs and humans[1]. Different life-stage of I. scapularis ticks emerge at different times of the year (varies according to geographic location), giving a seasonality to Lyme disease transmission dynamics. It appears primarily in specific areas including the southern New England states; eastern Mid-Atlantic states; the upper Midwest, particularly Wisconsin and Minnesota; and on the West Coast, particularly northern California in the United States. It is also present in Europe and Asia[7]. Most of the areas where to find them are in forest or grassy, wooded, marshy areas near rivers, lakes or ocean, and are common in homes and buildings in secluded or rural areas. In Canada, there 2 types of blacklegged or deer tick that can spread Lyme disease. The blacklegged tick (Ixodes scapularis) and the blacklegged (Ixodes pacificus) [3] . Dogs tend to be bitten by infected I. scapularis adults, which are most active in the cooler early spring and late fall months [2]. An adult female tick is rarely (if ever) transmitted the B. burgdorferi to her offspring. Ticks most commonly become infected as juveniles after a bloodmeal on an infected wildlife host (most commonly rodents). Because ticks typically feed only one time per life stage, the next opportunity for B. burgdorferi transmission is during the next bloodmeal in the tick’s next life stage[2]. Typically, Lyme disease symptoms will take a couple of months or more to appear (2-5 months) after getting infected [8]. Symptomatically, Lyme disease can be difficult to distinguish from anaplasmosis because the signs of the diseases are very similar, and they occur in essentially the same areas of the country. Lyme disease is diagnosed through a blood test that shows whether an animal has been exposed to the bacterium[11]. Common symptoms that will appear are: Lameness: An inability to use one or more limbs is one of the most common symptoms of Lyme disease in dogs. Swollen lymph nodes: found in the neck, chest, armpits, groin, and behind the knees, are typically the first to show swelling. Lymph node swelling indicates an immune response triggered to fight the disease. Joint swelling: Swollen joints, stiff walking, or avoidance to touch may be other signs of the disease. Fatigue: Dogs with Lyme disease may also exhibit flu-like symptoms of low energy and lethargy. Loss of appetite: Losing interest in eating, especially if it leads to weight loss, is another sign that a dog may have Lyme. Fever: In addition to the above symptoms, a dog may have a fever caused by the Lyme disease infection. In rare cases, if Lyme disease is left untreated it can lead to damage in the kidneys, nervous system, and heart. Lyme disease affecting the kidneys is the second most common syndrome in dogs and is generally fatal. Facial paralysis and seizure disorders have been reported in the disease form affecting the nervous system. The form of the disease that affects the heart is rare. [10]. The most commonly used to diagnose Lyme disease in dogs are the serologic assays. Although some laboratories still use traditional serologic methods (e.g., whole-cell enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunofluorescence assay), these assays have largely been replaced by serologic assays that detect host antibodies to specific B. burgdorferi proteins. These assays are qualitative, providing a yes/no answer regarding B. burgdorferi serostatus[3]. Treatment is generally recommended for seropositive dogs that display clinical signs of Lyme disease or are asymptomatic but have evidence of protein-losing nephropathy[4]. Most frequently antibiotics used to treat Lyme disease in dogs are doxyclycline and monicycline, at a dosage of 10mg/kg PO q12h to q24h for 30 days [2][5]. Amoxicillin and erythromycin are other antibiotics that can be used for treating the disease. A non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (carprofen or deracoxib) may also be given to the patient [6]. A possible complications may occur when treating Lyme disease. Some dogs who take antibiotics can develop loss of appetite, vomiting and diarrhea. Once infected, a dog will always have the bacteria that cause Lyme disease in his or her body. Therefore, relapses are possible; lookout for unexplained fever, swollen lymph nodes, and/or lameness. A small percentage of dogs develop kidney failure as a result of Lyme disease. Clinical signs include vomiting, weight loss, poor appetite, lethargy, increased thirst and urination, and abnormal accumulations of fluid within the body. [6] The best way to protect from Lyme disease is to use tick-preventive products year-round. Several safe and effective commercial parasiticides are available for tick control on dogs and cats, including systemics (isoxazolines), topicals (permethrin, fipronil), and collars. Another effective strategy is vaccination. Other prevention strategies include reducing exposure to ticks and avoiding areas with ticks [2]. References [1] Lyme Disease Diagnostic Market – Growth, Trends, COVID-19 Impact, and Forecasts (2022 – 2027), MOdor Intelligence, January 202 [2] Lyme Disease in Dogs: Signs and Prevention, Kathryn E. Reif, MSPH, PhD.,April 2020, https://todaysveterinarypractice.com/parasitology/lyme-disease/ [3] Lyme Disease, IPAC (https://ipac-canada.org/lyme-disease.php) [4] / Littman MP, Gerber B, Goldstein RE, et al. ACVIM consensus update on Lyme borreliosis in dogs and cats. J Vet Intern Med 2018;32(3):887-903. [5] Mullegger RR. Dermatological manifestations of Lyme borreliosis. Eur J Dermatol. 2004 Sep-Oct;14(5):296-309. PMID: 15358567 [6] How to Treat Lyme Disease in Dogs, Jennifer Coates, DVM, December 2014, PETMD (https://www.petmd.com) [7] Lebech AM. Polymerase chain reaction in diagnosis of Borrelia burgdorferi infections and studies on taxonomic classification. APMIS Suppl. 2002;(105):1-40. PMID: 11985118 [8] Could Your Dog Have Lyme Disease? How to Recognize the Symptoms and Get Treatment, Lavanya Sunkara , July 2022, GoodRx Health [9] Everything You Need To Know About Lyme Disease In Dogs, Kimberly Alt, July 2022, Canine Journal [10] Lyme Disease (Lyme Borreliosis) in Dogs, Reinhard K. Straubinger, DrMedVetHabil, PhD, Institute for Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, LMU, October 2022 [11] Lyme disease: A pet owner’s guide, American Veterinary Medical Association
